Monday, September 30, 2019

History Of Green Technology Environmental Sciences Essay

In this new epoch, engineering is bettering fast and economic is turning quickly due to the epicurean life style of human presents. We can hold every bit much energy as we want by bring forthing expeditiously and continuously. But the negative impact that these energy green goods is more than positive impact because of resources that we need to utilize and blow merchandise that were produce from the procedure of bring forthing energy such as atomic energy and coal energy. On the other manus, the rapid growing of industry from agricultural industry to fabricating industry in the past decennaries has caused the production of energy to increase. However, the addition in these energy production consume a great sum of resource and will do pollution to the environment and besides people today has already cognizant of the effects of pollution that will convey to us in future. Therefore, production of green engineering and energy has been increasing in these few old ages.1.1 History of Green TechnologyIn the early yearss, before the industry revolution, people were utilizing the chief beginning, the Sun, to bring forthing the heat, they besides used the other beginning to help their day-to-day life, such as Equus caballuss as their transit usage, animate beings like cattles and donkeys as their labours, and the air current will utilize to travel the canvass and bring forth the simple machine. However, since the first introduce of modern steam engine by Thomas Newcomen and James Watt in the mid 1700s, people found the possibility of brand usage of the power of steam. The individual steam engines were shortly became powering engines, mills and farm implements after the coal dug from the stat mis of England and Appalachia. In the 1800s, more and more natural resources were founded utile and able to convey us a million of convenience, such as the oil and crude oil which usage in processed the gasolene for machine burning after that. However, this easiness has brought a batch of energy crisis all around the universe today due to the immense ingestion on the fossil fuels such as the oil, coal and the natural gas in the past decennary. Presents, green engineering can mention to many different things, such as clean energy, renewable energy, sustainable energy, waste direction and energy preservation. However, it is difficult to happen a history specify for green engineering in the past. During the 1900s, there were a series of energy crisis in the Middle East and things acquiring worse in twelvemonth 1973 when the trade stoppage imposed by the oil manufacturers of Iraq on America led the monetary value of rough oil to lift from $ 3 per barrel to $ 12 in twelvemonth 1974 and about make a mean monetary value of $ 45 in twelvemonth 1980. This determination was in response to the America gave their support for the Israel in the Arab-Israeli War ( Yom Kippur War ) . ( Terry Macalister, 3 March 2011 ) United Stated was wake uping by this oil crisis and realized the importance of the energy resources, hence get downing the initial push for developing the clean energy. In 1978, the National Energy Act became a landmark first measure in get downing the research and development of renewable energy, but the push for renewable criterions truly began in the sixtiess. ( http: //www.greenenergychoice.com/green-guide/renewable-events.html ) After that, Madrigal besides had a important research in solar, air current and other alternate energies because there is a sudden alteration in the energy cost and realisation of environmental crisis. These were the groundss to turn out that since 1900s, green engineering was undergoing a immense and rapid growing until today. In figure 1, the diagram shows the rapid growing of energy ingestion from twelvemonth 1986 to 2011.Figure 1: World primary energy ingestion grew by 2.5 % in 2011, less than half the growing rate experienced in 2010 but near to the historical norm. Rowth decelerated for all parts and for all fuels. Oil remains the universe ‘s prima fuel, accounting for 33.0 % of planetary energy ingestion, but this figure is the lowest portion on record. Coal ‘s market portion of 30.3 % was the highest since 1969.1.2 Research BackgroundEnergy is really of import presents in either industrialised state and besides consumed by family. Most of the energy is coming from oil and natural gas but unluckily these resources are consuming when times goes on. Due to this job, research workers are seeking to develop alternate fuels, new agencies of bring forthing energy and energy efficiency demand. They have developed many beginnings of renewable energy which is chemical energy, electrical energy, beaming energy and atomic energy. Although all these options beginnings of energy is renewable, but it besides pose other negative impact to the environment said Kofi ( 2002 ) . In some states, clean energy is produced which is energy that does non bring forth waste merchandises besides known as green energy. Harmonizing to Bakar, Sam, Tahir, Rajianiand Muslan ( 2011 ) , green engineering is an evolving of assorted sort of methodological analysiss and stuffs sweetening. The use of environmental friendly mechanisms has been increased to cut down the impact ensuing from industrial sector wastage and dodo fuel ingestion due to researches that has been done by scientists related to green engineering indicating to climate alterations and planetary heating due to greenhouse gases. With the menace of planetary heating and dearly-won energy lifting, concerns are get downing to recognize the benefits of utilizing these engineerings to cut down C footmark and waste while giving the concern a positive consequences said Zainura ( 2010 ) . A A A A A A A Harmonizing to Eyraud, Wane, Zhang and Clements ( 2011 ) , they have done research on renewable energy by analysing the tendencies and determiners of investing on green engineering for the last decennaries on advanced and emerging states. They are utilizing multi-country historical dataset and the consequences shows that green investing has become an of import factor in energy sector which is turning quickly largely by China.1.3 Development of Green TechnologyThere are assorted types of green engineering such as air current power, solar energy, hydroelectric power which is derived from the H2O motion, biofuels which is derived from firing workss and animate beings substances. , geothermic energy which is derived from the heat that given off by the Earth, biomass which is produced by the organic stuffs such as workss and animate beings.Figure 2: G20 Renewable Electricity ProductionDegree centigrades: UsersUserDesktopUntitled.png Beginning: NRDC, 2012 ; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2012 ; Bloomberg New Energy Finance 2012 There is a research and informations aggregation prepared by the NRDC, 2012 ; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2012 ; Bloomberg New Energy Finance 2012 demoing some of import statistics in per centum of the renewable electricity production and investing of ranked the G20 state. The electricity are produced by assorted sort of renewable resources such as the air current, solar, geothermic, moving ridge and tidal. ( see figure 2 )Table 1: Electricity from Wind, Solar, Geothermal, Tidal and Wave in the G20 CountriesDegree centigrades: UsersUserDesktopUntitled1.png Beginning: Natural Resources Defense Council, Energy Information Administration, and Bloomberg New Energy Finance As of 2011, the EU states are truly taking the battalion, with Germany the most out of the G20 states, acquiring about 11 % of its energy from renewable beginnings. It ‘s followed by the EU as a whole with about 7 % , so Italy and Indonesia. Other states like the U.S. , China, Mexico, and Brazil slowdown buttocks. The US comes in at 7th topographic point, where its measly 2.7 % renewable energy puts it merely a hair in front of Mexico. Russia comes in last, with 0.0 % of its energy coming from renewable beginnings. While all these states have made of import advancement since 2002 they are still significantly behind other states like New Zealand, Spain, Portugal, and Iceland ( see table 1 ) . The NRDC besides ranked the states on how much their renewable energy production has grown since 2002. South Korea has had the most growing: it multiplied its then-puny production 200 times, seting it at a still-puny 0.9 % . China comes in a distant second, holding multiplied its renewable energy more than 80 times. The US is 11th on that list, holding quadrupled its production. Argentina, where production has decreased by 12 % , is last. ( see table 1 )Table 2: Top States for Clean Energy Investments in 2011Degree centigrades: UsersUserDesktopUntitled3.png Beginning: Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2012 These lifting tendencies are demoing up in the investing in clean energy in each of these G20 countries.A Since 2002, the G20 states have cumulatively invested over $ 860 billion in clean energy, harmonizing to informations fromA Bloomberg New Energy Finance. The bulk of this investing has occurred in the E.U. ( $ 291 billion ) , followed by the U.S. ( $ 215 billion ) , China ( $ 197 billion ) , Brazil ( $ 52 billion ) , and India ( $ 40 billion ) . Saudi Arabia, which has spent a hapless $ 20 million since 2004, comes in last topographic point. This is because in Saudi Arabia the oil monetary value is still low. In the thick of worldwide renewable energy sector growing, some authorities policies encouraged renewable energy growing much more efficaciously than others, such as Germany ‘s feed-in duties. The United States has been prosecuting renewable energy less sharply than Germany has, and, in conformity with the stating â€Å" you reap what you sow, † Germany has far more efficaciously stimulated renewable energy growing. To to the full understand the importance of weighing an aggressive growing policy versus a milder one, it ‘s of import to understand the intent of promoting renewable energy use. Due to the fact that planetary heating is a clip bomb that requires pressing action, a mild growing policy that leaves the United States bring forthing merely 2.7 % of power from renewable beginnings is non equal. Every twelvemonth that coal power workss dominate, they make a important part to our turning planetary heating job. If planetary heating was non an issue, it could be pursued less sharply. However, peak oil is a concern every bit good. The study ‘s writers remind the 20 states of the committedness they 20 made in 2002 to â€Å" well increase the planetary portion of renewable energy beginnings. † They ‘ve made a difference: in the G20 states as a whole, new clean energy investings have increased by about 600 per centum, far outpacing economic growing in those states. But it ‘s non plenty, the study ‘s writers warn. Without a dramatic turnaround, the G20 states are on no path to run into their end. The G20 states as a whole presently use 2.6 % renewable energy. Based on current tendencies, they will be utilizing under 4 per centum by 2015, and less than 6 per centum by 2020. ( Jake Schmidt & A ; Aaron Haifly, Jan 2012 )Problem Statement1.4 Research Objective1.4.1 General Aim: The general aim of this survey is to analyze the factor that enhances the planetary green engineering in economic position. Other than that, the intent of this survey is to analyze the cointegration and long tally relationship among the variables by utilizing Vector Error Correction Model ( VECM ) method. Then, we will establish out which variables are significantly influenced others and how it does in order to detect a more effectual manner in making an sweetening of green engineering in planetary. There are five variables that we used in our survey, which are clean energy index ( green engineering index ) , fossil fuel monetary value, CO2 license ‘s monetary value, engineering index and the market stock monetary value ( S & A ; P 500 ) . Last, the specific aims of this research are as follow. 1.4.2 Specific Aim: Our specific aims are as follows: 1. To analyze whether clean energy index and dodo fuel monetary value has any cointegrated and long tally relationship by utilizing VECM. 2. To analyze whether clean energy index and CO2 permit ‘s monetary value has any cointegrated and long tally relationship by utilizing VECM. 3. To analyze whether clean energy index and engineering index has any cointegrated and long tally relationship by utilizing VECM. 4. To analyze whether clean energy index and S & A ; P 500 has any cointegrated and long tally relationship by utilizing VECM.1.5 Research QuestionMake the clean energy index and dodo fuel monetary value have a important relationship between each other? Make the clean energy index and CO2 permit ‘s monetary value have a important relationship between each other? Make the clean energy index and engineering index have a important relationship between each other? Make the clean energy index and S & A ; P 500 have a important relationship between each other?1.6 Hypothesis of the surveyIn our research, we treated all the variables as our dependent variables. Therefore in this instance there is no demand to stipulate which variables are endogenous variables and which are the exogenic variables by utilizing this VECM method. So, we are traveling to do a hypotheses to calculate out either there are cointegrated and long tally relationship exist among these variables. In fact, as we noticed that, the quickly turning of the green engineering globally in recent decennaries, therefore, we are expected that the variables we had chosen will hold long tally relationship and cointegrated among each others.1.7 Significant of the surveyBack to the old surveies, past research worker have stated that the clean energy index, engineering index, oil monetary value, involvement rate have long run relationship and cointegrated among each other. However, the survey had figured out CO2 license ‘s monetary value had no long tally relationship and no influenced by other variables ( Surender Kumar, 2009 ) . Therefore, in our survey, we decided to look into over the CO2 license ‘s monetary value with other variables once more to calculate out whether there is an being of cointegrated and long tally relationship among them. Due to the aggressively rises of the pollution rate and the energy crisis jobs, it has been pealing a bell to non merely the developed states but globally including those states which are still in developing phase. Based on the antecedently surveies, most of the research workers were merely concentrate the country of survey on developed states and some of them are universe ‘s renewable energy leaders ( Germany, Denmark, Spain ) , such as the OECD states and G20 states. On the other manus, part of other little states besides ca n't be neglected. So, it is of import to look into other developing states which are besides undergoing a immense betterment in their clean energy growing such as Iceland, Lesotho, Albania, Paraguay, Bhutan and Mozambique. Therefore, we decided to make a globally research on our subject. Besides that, the authorities and future research worker may utilize this survey as their mentions. For illustration, authorities will acquire benefit by have some thoughts with how to heighten their green engineering due to the past research had stated that the state gross domestic production has a positive relationship straight with the green engineering growing. Furthermore, hereafter research worker can make a reappraisal on this survey and they may make a more dependable with future theory.1.8 Chapter LayoutIn chapter one, which is the introductory chapter includes background and definition of green engineering and how it benefits to the environment, job statement, aims, hypothesis and in conclusion theoretical model. In the background and definition portion, we discuss about the importance of clean energy besides known as renewable energy and what is benefits it will convey to our environment. After that, our research will go on to job statement. In this portion, we will discourse about the job and issue of the research subject in item. Then we will continue to following portion which is the aim. It is separated into two parts that is general aim which is the chief aim of our research and specific aim which is specific thought of what we are traveling to prove. And in conclusion we will go on with theoretical model that is the construction that supports the theory of a research survey. A In this portion, we will include and depict the theory that we use and apply in this research.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Case: Supply Chain Management and Application Software Packages

Info from case total revenue for last reporting = 110 million cio reviewed 3 following implementation strategies: -classic disintermediation – removal of intermediaries in a supply chain. connects supplier directly with customers -remediation-working more closely with ecisting middlemen partners. strategy could be affected by high contracting risks. -network-building alliances and partnerships with both existing and new suppliers and distributors involving a complex set of relationships. Networks tended to reduce search costs for obtaining information, products and services. selected remidiation – because it best fits the firms goal of simplifying data sharing throughout the supply chain -also had longterm and positive relationship with its primary distributors, which would ameliorate the high contracting risk. â€Å"The firm purchased stock woods from a number of producers and processed them to meet specific customer specifications. Approx. 60 percent of woodsynergy s ales were in high-end furniture† Problems 1 – Choice of implementation plan is wrong – LONG TERM -CIO chose remediation because it best fit the firm's goal of simplifying data sharing throughout the supply chain; furthermore, the CIO noted that woodsynergy had a long-term and positive relationship with its primary distributors which would ameliorate the high contracting risk issue† -the best way of simplifying data sharing is eliminating any unnecessary party that the information needs to travel to. -remove the distributors and engage the customers directly -who are we to decide how your existing distributors will feel after you amend any contracts to include any new information system to the SCM that ultimately creates more overhead for them? the business model of woodsynergy suggests that â€Å"the firm was committed to delivering information to the right people at the right time so that strategic and operational decisions were made properly and quicklyà ¢â‚¬  -benefit going national prevented by local distributors – if woodsynergy engages their end users directly it will promote better customer relationships as well as open potential national and international markets/ Causes -long-term relationships with distributors -contracts with distributors -CIO decision seems biased Alternatives choose classic intermediation -stay with remediation -choose networking Solution: Chose Classic intermediation †¢Removes the middleman †¢The middle man share shift to suppliers, Woodsynergy and to the customer, making the company more profitable and increasing the customer loyalty †¢Efficiency – instead of suppliers shipping first to the Woodsynergy and then Woodsynergy shipping the products to the customer, supplier can ship straight to the customer Implementation: (implanting the plan – find the need, develop the program, and implement it and the evaluate it) Business need †¢System investigation †¢Syst em analysis †¢System design †¢Proframming and testing †¢Implementation †¢Operation and mainenance 2 – Prototype Built – short term problem *** -â€Å"due to budget and time constraints the project team chose to build a gateway prototype without addressing problems of integrity and timeliness with the systems data. The project team decided to improve the data quality at a future date† – customers data needs to be secure. Period. For any duration no matter how short. â€Å"Two of the key drivers included in gateway design were data standardization and real-time interface† -It should be real-time interface and data integrity as aligned with Woodsynergy’s business goals. -release data standardization at a later time instead of data integrity Causes -budget -time constraint -phase 1 of prototype does not directly correlate to business goals Alternatives -cloud system from 3rd party -key drivers in phase 1 = data integrity and real-time interface/data standardization at future date/release †¢Application software packages – off the shelves. ONE MORE alt Solution: †¢Application software packages – off the shelves. oPrewritten, pre-coded application software commercially available for sale oA lot of choices, with rating/reviews from its customers/users oOther companies are already using them oSome software companies even let you try them oQuicker solution, gives the it team to work on the bigger problem or new software oIt may be cheaper than labour and resources spent building prototype that may put company`s customer`s information at risk Implementation – . Identify potential vendors 2. Determine the evaluation criteria a. Functionality of the software b. Cost and financial terms c. Vendor`s reputation – success stories/customer reviews d. System flexibility e. Security f. Required training g. Data handling h. Ease of internet interface i. User friendly 3. Evaluate ven dors and packages 4. Chose vendor and package 5. Negotiate a contract 6. Implement the software 7. Train the staff/users 3 – Project Team Questionable – Short term and Long term? *** Causes launched multiple it based supply chain management initiatives -researched how gateways are used in their business and understand the different of technology on the internet† in first few weeks – this should take a few days at most -phase 1 of prototype not aligned with business goals –decision criteria— this is what I think would be the criteria, we can discuss if you have others *** -budget – need better coaching on team goal and better planning -increase customer satisfaction -be consistent with corporate mission -Time constraint – implement fairly quickly -improve profits within acceptable risk parameters Solution – BE consistent with corporate mission Implementation †¢Be consistent with corporate mission oTrain and remind the m in every morning huddles oBefore implementing the any new plan or developing new software or making the decision to devolve a new software, correlate it with the business strategy oDelegate effectively to team members oHold them accountable – stay on top of their performance oGive the team budget – quarterly yearly or project based – so there will not be any wastages Source: /http://plato. acadiau. ca/courses/Busi/IntroBus/CASEMETHOD. html/

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Adriaen Kocks Research Paper

The Delft pottery production process starts with the sourcing of white clay that is imported from Germany. The clay is then mixed with water to form liquid clay. Afterwards, the liquid is poured into moulds made from plaster of Paris. The plaster absorbs the water and makes the clay to dry quickly.After the liquid clay is poured into the mould, it takes around thirty minutes to solidify around the mould. The excess liquid is then poured out. Consequently, the moulds are turned upside-down to remove the remaining liquid. The mould is afterwards removed from the pottery after four hours.Later, the edges are trimmed with a knife and the rough surfaces are smoothened by use of a wet sponge. The pottery is then left for three days to dry completely, followed by burning in an electric kiln for eight hours at a temperature of about 1040 degrees centigrade. Consequently, the pottery is allowed to cool for 24 hours. 1 The baked ceramic articles are then painted with the appropriate decoration s.The Delft Pottery technique started way back in the 13th century when the Delft Company received its municipal rights. In the 16th century, many delft factories were established in many Dutch towns. The plants produced many products including the famous â€Å"Maiolica† which was made of tin glaze decorated by being painted blue or being given polychrome design.The delft company acquired its name from a Dutch village where the articles were widely produced. Due to the civil war in China, many delft factories were closed down due to lack of raw materials. The existing language barrier also made the companies to close down.In the 19th century, the remaining companies closed due to increased competition and lack of appropriate technology. The cultural aspects and tradition of the Dutch people dictated that they paint all their articlesDuring the time when the delft pottery started, there were a lot of innovations and artistic techniques due to the discovery of the white porcela in in China. At this time, there was the civil war in China that led to the decline of the products of the delft companies.In the 17th century, the delft companies brought many exotic wares and spices from China. This action caused many artisans to make their own homemade pottery which led to the decline of the market. 2 By the 19th century, delft pottery had declined due to other European materials gaining popularity.Moreover, many Germany and other countries’ potters developed their articles which they distinguished from the original delft products by use of more advanced techniques, thus making their products more durable. The sales of the delfts thus diminished.  Some of the current artists that are producing pottery works that are related to delft pottery include â€Å"de Delftse Pauw† which exclusively sells and produces entirely hand-painted delft articles although with a different approach.Further, the British airways has made several airplane tail parts with the delft pottery technique. The delft technique is widely used in the manufacture of many products in the current world and it is an artistic method used by professionally-trained painters.In addition, many of the collections made by tourists include many of the of the delft remains. Delft pottery thus acts as an investment of the Dutch culture. Further, the delft pottery is used in the manufacture of building tiles, thus adding artistic flavor to modern technology.Works CitedKidson, Joseph R. Historical Notices of the Leeds Old Pottery. Verona NJ: Read Books, 2008.   .Reevens, George M. Sims, Ian and Cripps, J. C. Clay Materials Used In Construction. Bath, United Kingdom: Geological Society, 2006.Time Out. Time Out Amsterdam. Time Out Guides, 2005.

Friday, September 27, 2019

MGR #8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MGR #8 - Essay Example Even when things are that desperate, through humbleness to God, human beings can find solace by hoping for the grace. Servanthood is Godliness. In Jung (2011) chapter 11, the author gives a view that people should have a lifestyle that significantly reflect on kindness to others and God. The author gives the verses in the old and New Testament that reveals how servants and kings view servanthood. The degree of motivation for service and the associated features evidently shows that God is at the core of human service and, His son the example of servanthood commitment and the spirit is the facilitator. In modern day living where people perform works of different kinds to earn a living, it is prudent that they understand that when they offer services, they serve God indirectly and not to their employers alone. Therefore, they need to do it devotedly to gain a healthy relation with the organizations. Through that, the employers may also reciprocate by doing good things to their

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Music, Movement or Creative Art Lesson Plan Assignment

Music, Movement or Creative Art Lesson Plan - Assignment Example e motor skills (Art), gross motor skills (Movement), social skills when they sing, dance and work together with other children, cognitive skills when they identify and talk about the animals and what they look/sound like as well as what they do. I can even make them sort the pictures of animals in various ways such as grouping them according to covering, to habitat or to the number of body parts. Finally, the song teaches about values because it focuses on praise and thanksgiving. I considered that all my students have different needs. For those who can join the main activity, I have prepared the song and dance and the art activities. However for my students who may not be capable of the activities due to some disability, age or lack of skill, I have also devised some ways for them to also participate such as improvising on the materials they can use (ex. Glue sticks instead of liquid glue; thick paint brushes instead of thin ones; easels instead of tables, with corresponding thicker paints). I have also considered those who may be unable to join the group movement activity to just watch the video in another room so that they can also enjoy the song while doing the small movements on their own without inhibitions. The children welcomed these differentiated strategies. Those who were sent to the video room initially just wanted to stay, and they were allowed to be with the group, but later on, they asked to see the video separately. The younger ones were able to do the Butterfly Blotto, but needed more assistance so that they control their impulse to paint the whole page instead of just the folded part. In any case, the lesson was a success! This lesson was the initial one and I did not expect mastery at once. I planned that the activities were motivators and reminders for the coming days of the lesson and activities we did. The following days also dealt with the same topic, but we focused on other areas such as what the animals ate, how they lived and which ones

Discuss the findings of the OFGEM report with regards to the UK energy Coursework - 1

Discuss the findings of the OFGEM report with regards to the UK energy market; and discuss if more competition between the big six UK energy firms may benefit UK consumers - Coursework Example The UK energy market has never experienced stiff competition from either new or existing energy supplying firms. A critical analysis of the current level of competition in energy supply proves that it is harmful to the consumers. In essence, the current competition in the energy sector has increased the energy prices and led to additional expenses to consumers. The competition among the six major energy firms in the UK is unhealthy as far as consumer welfare is concerned. Competition in the UK energy market need to be increased in order to improve service delivery and reduce the energy prices. Rise in the level of competition in the energy industry would be of great importance to the consumers. Allen, Hammond, & McManus, (2008) states that the UK energy sector has experienced several changes in the past few years. The prices for electricity and gas have been on rise, with that of gas rising at a higher rate. A research conduct from 2011 to 2013 on domestic energy prices showed that the price levels have been on an increase with no signs of decrease. The energy expense has risen by over 4% in the past ten years. Consumers have to keep on adjusting their budgets to meet the ever increasing energy expense. As a result, some customers keep on switching from supplier to supplier for better deals. However, the rate at which consumers switch from one supplier to the other is very minute and, therefore has little influence on the annual energy consumption expense (Johansson et al., 2012) The UK government has established mechanisms to move to cleaner sources of energy. Use of energy sources such as gas, coal and nuclear power produce greenhouse gases that are destructive to the ozone layer. Research has shown that the increased production of greenhouse gases has contributed to climate change. For instance, over the past ten years, climate patterns have changed and become a little bit unpredictable. In order to control discharge of harmful

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Parity Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Parity Theories - Essay Example This simply indicates uniformity in the prices of fixed number of goods and services and exchange rate of two countries. The roots of this theory lie in the law of one price, which says that homogenous goods should have identical prices universally not including any carrying or shipping costs under the prevalence of perfect competition if the pertinent national prices are stated in a common currency. The law of one price has certain conditions, which must exist in order for this law to be applicable. Firstly, it is the presence of competitive market for goods and services in two countries (EconomyWatch, 2010). Secondly, presence of goods and services that two countries can trade between themselves and lastly, checking of transportation and other operational expenses, which are obstructions in trade. Taking example of McDonald’s Big Mac hamburger prices around the world, one can understand this concept. For this the one should take the prices of all the countries in common curr ency, therefore dollar would be the appropriate one as every currency’s appreciation or depreciation is measured in terms of dollar (Taylor and Taylor, 2004, pp.135-158). In January 2004, the price of hamburger in United States was $2.80 where as in China it was $1.23, least expensive of all countries, this shows that China’s currency was underrated by 56%. ... Moreover, wage rate of the person serving foods at restaurant, rent of place of restaurant, and many other factors in case of businesses other that restaurants, have different costs and values in different countries therefore final prices become very different due to these inputs. In response of question that why countries should adopt Purchasing Power Parity Theory when there are so many discrepancies, one can say that in long-term PPP theory has good effects on the economy of a country. A big retailer may use this theory to find that in what countries products possess lesser prices than the domestic country so that the retailer can approach them. This would increase the demand of that product in the country in which it is of low price leading to increase in price (Murray and Papell, 2005, pp. 410-415). Simultaneously, the countries that were selling the product at a higher price would somehow manage to lower the prices so that demand increases and people purchases from them. Ultima tely, both countries would start offering same prices in spite of differences in the currencies. There are two types of purchasing power parity theories; these are Absolute purchasing power parity and relative purchasing power parity. Absolute purchasing power parity theory suggests that if the prices of goods convert into same currency then a basket of goods would have same cost in the native country as well as abroad. In simple words, absolute purchasing power parity theory assumes that the purchasing power of money should be identical between countries. On the other hand, relative purchasing power parity theory focuses on changes in

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Solve a regression problem using SPSS Coursework

Solve a regression problem using SPSS - Coursework Example The Equation of Best Fit is a calculation or equation that attempts to minimize distance between all the data points and a fitted line. The general idea is that small and unbiased difference between a model’s predicted values and the observed values indicates the model of best fit. However, it is advisable to look at the residual plots before concluding about goodness-of-fit as a statistical measure. We interpret the slope b or regression coefficient as the amount of change in Y for each unit increase in X. that is b represents the effect of X on Y while the intercept a, is the predicted value of Y associated with X = 0. From our analysis, the slope (a = 0.124) and Y-intercept (-1.031), X-temperature, and Y ice cream sales. Figure 2 below shows the strong positive correlation between temperature and Ice Cream Sales (slope). The main idea for this task is to find out whether the number of ice cream sold varies with temperature. Based on existing literature, we would expect ice-cream sales to increase with temperature. In order to answer the questions for the exercise, the Number of Ice Cream Sales is the dependent variable (criterion variable), and Temperature is the independent variable. Overall, the task is a simple linier regression because there are only two variables. Figure 4 above shows the correlation coefficient (r) is +0.98, which tells us a strong positive correlation between sales of ice cream and temperature, at 0.001 significance level. Therefore, we establish that the relationship between sales of ice cream and temperature was positively and strongly related (r = +0.98), p

Monday, September 23, 2019

The Rape Charge Filed by the Complainant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Rape Charge Filed by the Complainant - Essay Example It is the onus of the Crown to prove a guilt that erases reasonable doubt to overcome the presumption of innocence that should exceed the evidentiary threshold (Fisher, 2011, p. 811). It was only after the second assault that she filed the rape complaint maybe out of spite of her uncle or it might be that she finally mustered enough courage to come out in the open to file the charge. A number of aspects in the case R. v. W. (1991) stand out, of which three are unusual. Firstly, the case is essentially that of which side to believe because of the lack of usual corroborating testimonies from other witnesses and this case becomes a case of his word pitted against hers. In other words, this case hinges on credibility as to which side seems to be the more truthful, the complainant or the defendant. For the jury, as sole judges, it all boils down to exercising their best judgment based on common sense and any prior everyday experiences as it relates to this particular case. In this regard, it is not quite unusual for rape victims not to file any charges immediately after an incident for various reasons, such as fear of retribution or shame. It is therefore quite understood why she decided to file a complaint only after a second assault took place. Some victims even take weeks or months before finally deciding to file a complaint, a considerable lapse of time when essential forensic evidence of a crime may have disappeared. Secondly, it is quite unusual for the trial judge to warn the jury not to start deliberating yet as there might be some corrections pertaining to the first charge filed when it was agreed by both parties to be essentially correct and fair (error-free). What is even more unusual was a short time that elapsed between the main charge and the re-charge, incontrovertible evidence or proof that the judge himself may have entertained some doubts as to the correctness of the first charge and making the re-charge almost as a second thought or  an afterthought to rectify something else.

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Impact of the Recession on Construction Contractors Essay Example for Free

Impact of the Recession on Construction Contractors Essay The current crisis in the world’s financial system has left the construction industry facing its toughest challenges for a generation. Salaries are falling; job cuts are predicted to reach 400,000 in England alone; and the impacts look set to get much worse before they get better. No country is immune from the impact of this and the UK, and much of the rest of the world, is already in, or about to enter a recession. Even buoyant construction markets such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are starting to feel the effect, with construction growth rate expected to slow from 20% to 15% in 2009 (Al Mal Capital). The United Nations (UN) predicts world economic output will shrink by as much as 0.4% in 2009 (UNs World Economic Situation and Prospects Report, 2009). These are serious times, however, the industry needs to be prepared to contribute to the recovery by retraining workers, maintaining the highest of standards of quality and supporting innovation. Construction professionals must not lose sight of their commitment to issues of sustainability, health and safety, ethical business practices and improved building standards. These will future-proof the industry and allow it to grow after the economy recovers. Companies seeking to find an extra edge in an increasingly competitive marketplace are likely to employ greater innovation as they look to become more efficient. This could have far reaching benefits for the industry in the future, where innovation has never been more vital. Construction Output It is clear that construction is in for a period of deflation. Forecasts suggest that there will be a 7% decline in output over the next three years, however, this figure is heavily contingent on Government spending coming through as planned (Construction Products Association). In the second quarter of 2008 new order figures were at their lowest level since 2004; 14% below the average last year. Housing orders were down 30%, private industrial orders by 36% and commercial orders by more than  £1bn from 2007 (Construction Products Association). A rapid decline in private work has been partly propped up by more public sector spending, however the outlook for the private sector over the next few quarters is set to get worse. The Olympics will prop up the industry to a certain extent but the cessation of office development will have a much greater effect. Overall, even if all public sector funding was spent next year, the construction industry in 2009 would still see the largest percentage of fall in output since the early nineties, when over 500,000 left the industry. This has been brought about by the sharp fall in private sector investment in construction – offices, retail, entertainment, as well as private house building. Public Sector Spending The Government’s decision to bring forward  £3bn of capital spending on infrastructure was cautiously welcomed by the construction industry (Pre-budget statement, November 2008). Given the extremely high levels of borrowing that the Treasury is expecting over the next few years, there is a risk that Government will fund later debt repayments with cuts in capital spending on construction further down the track. There is also a risk that delays in the Government’s existing build programmes will lead to increased under-spend. Programmes such as the Building Schools for the Future Programme have already fallen behind schedule, and reports suggest that this is as a result of bureaucracy rather than lack of funding. Business Finance and Loss of Confidence According to the Confederation of British Industry (CBI), more than half of British firms have seen a decline in the ease of access to capital since the onset of the credit crunch; 30% of businesses have been, or expect to be refused new credit; and 78% expect business conditions to be worse next year. The Government must urgently take steps to unblock the financial markets and improve the flow of capital to business. The fiscal mitigation measures that were recently announced by the Chancellor (Pre-budget statement, November 2008) were not sufficient to address the underlying loss of confidence facing all UK businesses (and people). More innovative ways could be investigated by Government to help the industry survive, such as providing credit insurance; relaxing bonding requirements on public projects; setting up project bank accounts; and providing tax breaks/concessions for sustainable construction RD. At present, the latter has effectively ground to a halt largely as a result of the deeply entrenched uncertainty that abound. Jobs Loss of Skills Almost 400,000 jobs in the construction sector in England could be lost over the next two years (assuming GDP shrinks by 2.2% in 2009 and rises by 0.75% in 2010). It is predicted that the worst affected area will be London, where 23% of workers are expected to be made redundant (Public and Corporate Economic Consultants for the Local Government Association). On the other hand, Eastern Europeans are responding to the downturn in the market by returning home, and this has eased the severity of the job situation in many instances. Given the forecasts for construction output in 2009, it could be assumed that jobs in the public sector may offer more security than those in the private sector. This reinforces the need for Government to establish how an accelerated public spending package will be implemented. It is essential that the government makes sure timetables don’t slip, and that it does what it can to speed up deal flows and bidding times. Through no fault of its own, the Construction Industry, in particular the house-building Industry, is having to dramatically re-structure and down-size merely to survive. The loss of technical resource and therefore expertise has been considerable and there are already signs that an upturn in the fortunes of the UK economy will not see these people return. This is a real concern, particularly as the science and technology that underpins UK sustainable construction is becoming even more complex and at a time when we need experienced people if we are to meet our sustainability objectives. Furthermore, it is not something that can be addressed overnight by short-term training and/or education. Procurement It has been reported that the credit crunch is likely to reverse the industry’s trend towards negotiated contracts and partnering. Instead, there could be a swing back towards single-stage, lowest bid tenders aimed at achieving the lowest possible outturn cost. While single-stage tendering may be seen as a quick fix during the economic downturn, this does not take the long-term view, nor adequately consider best value for money. It does however provide a more risky financial environment which is likely to become a fertile breading ground for claims and liquidations as contractors cut their profits to secure work in a decreasing market. Partnering has proved itself as the most efficient way of undertaking all kinds of construction work including new buildings and infrastructure, alterations, refurbishment and maintenance. Indeed the figures show that that in the four years from 2001 to 2005,  £700m of public money was saved, and the potential for two and a half billion in savings, would have been feasible had best practice been adopted across the board. When times are hard, best practice is at its most crucial to successful business. Fraud An unexpected knock-on effect of the credit crunch has been a dramatic rise in worldwide construction fraud. Evidence suggests that the average construction companys loss to fraud has increased by 69% in the last year (Kroll Global Fraud Report), driven largely by tough economic conditions. A total of 890 senior executives participated in the worldwide survey, which covered 10 industries, with just over one-quarter based in Europe. More than 95% of the construction companies surveyed said they had suffered from corporate fraud in the past three years up by 77% from last years survey. Most frequent types of fraud occurring in the construction industry include theft of physical assets or stock, financial mismanagement, management conflict of interest, and corruption and bribery. Companies will need to be even more vigilant than usual to reduce fraud in the construction industry. Sustainability Opinion is divided about the impact of the credit crunch on the sustainability agenda. A recent survey from the UK Green Building Council (UK GBC) suggests that while the conventional building industry suffers, the sustainable building sector is experiencing growth. Asked whether the financial crisis has impacted on their organisation in tackling sustainability, 56% of UK GBC members said sustainability had become a bigger focus. Only 18% said the credit crunch has had an adverse effect on efforts to address sustainability. On the other hand, a survey of small-medium sized contractors suggests that tough government targets on sustainable construction are being missed, as buildings fail to achieve the standards set by the Code for Sustainable Homes (National Federation of Builders). The survey revealed that contractors appeared to be quite knowledgeable about the driving issues and regulations for sustainability, but in over half (53%) of projects tendered for, sustainability was not a client requirement. Either way, it is important that new buildings, not least those procured by government, are of the highest possible environmental standards. Green building can be at the heart of a low-carbon economic recovery, boosting growth and creating green collar jobs. This is particularly true in existing homes and buildings, where we need a massive programme of refurbishment to cut carbon, reduce energy bills and produce more comfortable places to live and work. By continuing to build using sustainable technologies the built environment will be preserved for future generations, and a proven record in sustainable design will be invaluable in gaining new contracts in the growing sustainable market. Education and Training The future success of the construction industry depends on the availability of skilled professionals. The credit crisis poses a significant threat to the number of students enrolling in graduate construction courses. Students may be apprehensive about pursuing a career in construction in this unstable climate. This would result in a loss of specialist skills, which in turn would hinder the recovery and future development of the industry. Sandwich courses could be at particular risk because of the lack of available placements available. Many companies are reducing the number of placements they have for students or not taking on any at all. This could result in a reduction in the number of places available on the courses because they can not guarantee work experience placements. Apprenticeships in the UK house-building industry have also suffered as a direct result of the credit crunch. However, opportunities still exist in the bigger public sector infrastructure projects such as schools, hospitals, railways and roads. As a result of these risks the Government is working with Construction Skills to try and secure as many positions as possible for students. A new taskforce is being created to ensure that construction training is as effective as possible, and apprenticeship funding will also be increased to over  £1 billion to try and prevent skill shortages (Department for innovation, Universities Skills). For professionals already within the industry, there is research to suggest that individuals with specialist skills or training could potentially gain a competitive advantage in the current economic climate (Chartered Institute of Management). The research predicts that professional qualifications could result in an additional  £152,000 in lifetime earnings. It also suggests that a working knowledge of sustainable building and other innovative methods will be a particular advantage, with major projects on the horizon requiring an extensive skilled workforce in these areas. It is important for employers to train and encourage further development if they want to secure the future of the construction industry. This will ensure that their workforce is properly trained in up-to-date techniques and will put them in a stronger and more competitive position to win new contracts when market conditions improve. Although it may be inevitable for some to make financial cuts to survive, it is crucial to maintain a constant number of new innovative minds that will allow the industry to recovery and continue to grow.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Has Globalisation Made The World More Dangerous?

Has Globalisation Made The World More Dangerous? Currently the world grapples with the worst economic downturn in decades, a growing body of research suggests the complexity of the modern global economy may make us more vulnerable than ever to catastrophe. Globalisation has impacted societies around the world in both positive and negative ways. Despite positive changes in certain areas though, there are two significant factors that make the globalised (and globalising) world a more dangerous place with respect to the rise of non-State threats. The spread of information and technology greatly increases the risks associated with any given terrorist attack; and economic transformations related to globalisation have left large portions of society disenfranchised while increasing the polarisation of wealth. Furthermore, the globalisation of culture, economics and religion has been a main reason for the increase in non-state threats and violence carried out by insurgents. Since the emergence and expansion of globalisation in the 1990s, t he world has experienced increased problems. The proposed problems are; increased terrorist activity, gaps between religion and cultural ideologies widening, global financial systems being less stable, dangers of pandemic diseases increasing, and global climate change becoming a major danger. One has to explore the extent to which globalisation has created a situation in which non-State threats can thrive and affect a wider number of people, thus making the world a more dangerous place. Globalisation can be defined as the integration of economic, social and cultural relations across borders (CLARK, 1997), and Globalization is best understood as the creation of a variety of transboundary mechanisms for interaction that affect and reflect the acceleration of economic, political and security interdependence. (KAY, 2004: 10) The term non-State threats refers to groups and individuals such as ethnic militias, cults, organised crime and terrorism. (CHA, 2000) Although terrorism has no wid ely accepted definition it has come to mean the use of violence by small groups to achieve political change. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008: 372) The relationship between non-State threats and globalisation is difficult to describe accurately, but it is inaccurate to suggest that globalisation is responsible for their rise, but technologies associated with globalisation have been exploited. Furthermore the economic transformations that have occurred due to globalisation have made it easier for terrorists to operate globally, communicate between one another and manoeuvre arms, and the breaking down of national territorial and trading boundaries also means that threat can travel further distances. The question asserts that there has been a rise in non-state threats. Indeed, the post cold war era has seen a rise of non-State forms of insurgency and violence, most notably in Mexico, Palestine, Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda. Global Conflicts seem to be changing from wars between states to wars within them. Of the 89 conflicts between 1989 and 1992 only 3 were between states. These conflicts were seen to be non-State, post-ideological, and more devastating in terms of their human effects. Indeed the world has become a more dangerous place in the last twenty years. However, in order to make a judgement on whether globalisation has been the main cause, one has to assess the extent to which globalisation has helped increase the level of threat posed by non-state insurgency and the potential harm this can cause to the global population. Firstly, globalisation has made the world a more dangerous place as the technological advances associated with globalization have improved the capabilities of terrorist groups to plan and conduct operations with far more devastation and coordination. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008: 378) The spread of technology, due to globalisation, has huge implications when considering the risk of any given terrorist attack. Globalisation has resulted in more trade, more connectivity, more markets, and more openness, and has therefore greatly enhanced the likelihood of any of a number of weapons of mass destruction, biological, chemical or nuclear, becoming accessible to terrorist groups. Today the potential harm that one terrorist attack can cause is staggering. Weaponry is more widely available in the modern day because they are far more easily bought, sold and transported. Advances in technology have contributed to The mobility of ideas, capital, technology, and people (WEBBER, BARMA, KROENIG, RAT NER, 2007: 50). Therefore non-Sate threats of the present day have a far greater capacity to cause harm globally due the advancement of world communications, transport and other technology. Todays international terrorism owes much to globalisation. Al Qaeda uses the internet to transmit messages, it uses credit cards and modern banking to move money and it uses cell phones and laptops to plot attacks. Globalisation has also empowered terrorist groups as it has allowed an un-censored increase in the volume, range and sophistication of propaganda materials. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008) An example of this can be seen from 1997 when a website posted the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movements communiquà ©s and videos during the seizure of the Japanese embassy in Lima. Furthermore, the terrorist organisation, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, has a website that promotes the group as internationally accepted and that they are committed to conflict resolution. Any computer can be used for propaganda purposes, such as with the printing of leaflets, and globalisation has allowed its influence to reach the furthest corners of the Earth. This has made the world more dangerous as the harmful ideals and objectives of terrorists can be spread with ease, and are more accessible to the general public, through the internet, video and various other methods. The technological advancement brought on by globalisation has also meant non-state threats like terrorists can mount co-ordinated attacks, from various areas, in different countries. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008) The London Underground bombings in July 2005, the Madrid bombings in March 2004 are but two examples. Extremist, fundamentalist groups, terrorists, criminals, and drug smugglers have been enhanced by the globalisation of technology and information. (CHA, 2000) Technologies including hand held phones and radios have allowed insurgents to operate independently and at substantial distances from one another. For example the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard ensures that any compliant phone will work anywhere in the world where a GSM network has been established. Therefore insurgents can conduct attacks in locations that are geographically separated by large distances. The improvement in global communications brought on by globalisation has certainly aided mil itant Islamic non-State threats as they appear presently to have global depth, power, and reach. For example, the 9/11 hijackers utilized cheap and readily available pre-paid phone cards to communicate between cell leaders and senior leadership and, according to at least one press account, coordinated final attack authorization prior to the jets taking off from different locations. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008: 380) Moreover, to a certain extent, terrorism has become much harder to counter due to globalisation because groups such as the Islamic fundamentalists have developed into a virtual global community rather than a hierarchical organisation with fixed training camps and headquarters. Various measures have been put in place for privacy on the internet such as passwords and the development of 64 and 128 bit encryption software which is tough to crack. Threatening Non-State groups are fairly well protected in their virtual community. Therefore, not only have technological advanceme nts, spread throughout the world by the process of globalisation, allowed terrorists to co-ordinate with more efficiency, but they have provided more security for non-State threatening actors as well. Terrorist groups have been able to leverage technological developments designed to shield a users identity from unauthorized commercial or private exploitation (GUNARATNA, 2002: 35). Globalisation has also helped Non-State threats of the present day have incredible mobility and what is more frightening is their potential lethality as well. Globalisation has made the crossing of international boundaries far easier. In recent years terrorists have been able to move rapidly between borders, making efforts to track them very complicated. Global commerce has been expanded hugely and this has helped increase the mobility of non-State threats. The volume of air travel and goods that pass through ports has increased exponentially through globalization (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008). The expanding global system of markets has meant border security measures have been relaxed in many areas. Moreover, demands for the efficient supply, manufacture and delivery of goods has made life more difficult for Sates to prevent terrorists exploiting gaps in security measures, which were originally created to deter illegal activity. An increase in mobility has also made it easier for thre atening non-State groups to transfer expertise between one another, and it has become easier for terrorist groups to establish operational bonds with their counterparts and sponsors across the world. Such collaboration flourished in the 1990s, and members of the international terrorism community are believed to have trained in many countries such as Afghanistan; Bosnia-Herzegovina; Chile; Colombia; Iran; Iraq; Libya; Mexico; North Korea; Pakistan; Sudan; Syria; and Turkey. Moreover globalisation has increased the potential lethality of non-State threats. Globalization may allow some terrorist groups to acquire, manufacture, and use weapons of mass destruction in order to conduct catastrophic attacks. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008: 382) Since the end of the cold war we have been given reason believe that attacks in the future by threatening non-State groups may involve weapons of mass destruction. For example, evidence recovered in Afghanistan in 2001 outlined plans by Al Qaeda to prod uce and test biological and chemical weapons. Globalisation has facilitated access to weapons as opportunities to transport weaponry internationally have grown substantially with the opening of markets and increased trade associated with a globalising world. It has greatly enhanced the likelihood of threatening non-State actors gaining possession of weapons of mass destruction, and therefore there has been a substantial increase in the harmful potential that modern day terrorist attack entails. The breaking down of national trade barriers and the move towards a global free market by globalisation has certainly aided non-State threats. Globalisation is coupled with an ideology of free markets and free trade and a decline in state intervention. (SHELLEY, 2006) The opening of markets has its global benefits but it can also aid terrorists as it has increased their capability to organise and strike globally. The 9/11 attacks are the best example as it was the heart of the US that got struck, which is a fair distance from the Al Qaeda heartland in the Middle East. Globalisation has made the transfer of money across borders literally instantaneous, and opportunities to transport weapons internationally have grown substantially with the opening of markets and increased trade associated with a globalising world. (LI, QUAN, SCHAUB, 2006) The acceleration of trade between states, has resulted in the establishment of Multi-National Corporations (MNCs), and has thus instituted transnati onal organisations that operate by their own rules and regulations rather than that of the governments. The creation of transnational organisations has facilitated trade with less government intervention and this has supported the boom of illicit trade as there are fewer regulations from the government to check the system. Furthermore, the rise in illegal trade of drugs and arms has made it easier for terrorists to fund their organisations and broaden it. As a result of this illicit trade, today terrorism has, in a sense, become a transnational organisation that cannot be easily checked and corrected by the government. Thus terrorists pose more threat to a greater number of people due to globalisation. The current wave of international terrorism, characterised by unpredictable and unprecedented threats from non-state actors, not only is a reaction to globalisation but is facilitated by it. (CRONIN, 2002) A relevant example for this would be resurgence of Al Qaeda and regrouping of T aliban, both labelled as terrorist organizations, funded with cash from heroin trade. (SHANTY, 2008) Globalisation has also made the world more dangerous by creating a system in which international crime, a form of non-State threat, can prosper. Transnational criminals are major beneficiaries of globalisation. Terrorists and criminals move people, money, and commodities through a world where the increasing flows of people, money, and commodities provide excellent cover for their activities. Both terrorists and transnational crime groups have globalised to reach their markets, to perpetuate their acts, and to evade detection (SHELLEY, 2006), thus making the world essentially more dangerous. Globalisation advocates the reduction of international regulations and barriers to trade and investment in order to increase trade and development. However, it is these conditions of a globalised environment that are crucial to the expansion of crime, as the decline in regulations have been exploited and has provided criminals with greater freedom. Transnational crime groups have been able to exte nd their reach by exploiting loopholes of state based legal systems. They travel to regions where they cannot be extradited, base their operations in countries with ineffective or corrupt law enforcement, and launder their money in countries with bank secrecy or few effective controls. By segmenting their operations, both criminals and terrorists reap the benefits of globalization, while simultaneously reducing their operational risks. (SHELLEY, 2006: WEB) Furthermore, globalisation has resulted in global trade increasing enormously, meaning there has been a larger flow of legitimate commodities but also an increase in illicit merchandise. Essentially the world has become more dangerous as globalisation has facilitated the movement of drugs, arms and contraband; which can in turn be used to generate profit for illegal non-State organisations. The drug trade was the first illicit sector to maximise profits in a globalised world. However, as the market for drugs became more competitiv e and law enforcement responses increased, the risk became greater meaning criminals have subsequently sought to benefit financially from other operations like arms trafficking and trade in people. A major service industry has also developed to serve all forms of transnational criminals (SHELLEY, 2006: WEB). For example, providers of false documentation and money launderers such as Riggs Bank in Washington D.C which was prosecuted for laundering money for the dictator of Equatorial Guinea. Overall globalisation has had quite a profound effect on the international criminal community. It has created a situation in which it is easier to prosper from illicit activities, and thus the world is worse off for it. Globalisation is seen by many in todays world as an invasion of different cultures by western (predominantly American) products and materialism. Therefore violence has been sighted by many non-State actors as the only method to preserve certain traditions and values from Americanisation. Western secular, materialist values are increasingly rejected by those seeking to regain or preserve their own unique cultural identity. (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008) Therefore the world may have become a more dangerous place as the process of globalisation, which is viewed by many as a silent American invasion of western ideals and goods, has and will continue to provoke violent reactions throughout the globe. Since the 1990s there have been many social changes due to globalisation, and the spread of free market capitalism appears to overwhelm the identity or values of certain groups. As the new globally connected system is not to the liking of many people, cultural friction may translate into confli cts divided along religious or ethnic lines to preserve cultural identity. Furthermore, economic transformations related to globalisation have left large portions of society disenfranchised while increasing the polarisation of wealth. As Sandbrook and Romano point out, in the era of globalisation, [Economic] inequality has risen in most countries, and in many cases sharply. (SANDBROOK, ROMANO, 2006: 107) Certain fringe groups have suffered terribly from the economic impact of globalisation. Other classes amongst society may have much to gain but the sense of deprivation of those who dont may become a powerful motivator for violence, and globalisation has left out those who pose the greatest threat. The western post-industrial states of the global North dominate international economic institutions such as the World Bank, set exchange rates, and determine global fiscal policies (BAYLIS, SMITH, OWENS, 2008). These actions can often be unfavourable to underdeveloped countries, and provide motivation for many in the global South to shift loyalties to illegal act ivities such as terrorism. Globalisation has provided access to a world market for goods and services, but this has often been perceived as a form of western economic imperialism, and thus can also motivate violence. Globalisation is widely believed to have had a generally positive impact on global economic growth, but the effect of globalisation on employment and the distribution of incomes have been intensely debated in recent years. It does create pressures leading to increased inequality in some countries and the need for structural adjustment in all. Therefore, many in the under-developed world have little opportunity to obtain wealth locally, and this has in turn caused mass emigration to urban centres. However movement is no guarantee of success, and in this case individuals may turn to violence for political or criminal reasons. In conclusion, globalisation has provided threatening non-State actors with a number of benefits. It has improved the technical capabilities of terrorists and given them global reach, and has created a system in which crime has become far more international. Moreover, globalisation has been seen by many as a western intrusion of other cultures and religions which has motivated violence. Essentially all these factors have certainly made the world a more dangerous place. However, in the era of the Cold War before globalisation took its largest strides, a war between the USA and the USSR had the potential to harm nearly everyone on the planet. This is something terrorists, ethnic militias, and global criminals can never achieve despite now having global reach. The potential threat posed pre-globalisation was greater than that of non-State threats of the present day. On the other hand the Cold War did not harm many at all whereas international terrorism now is causing problems all over t he globe. The world may indeed be more dangerous due to the increased powers of non-State threats thanks to globalisation, but the actual danger of new international terrorist networks to the regimes of stable states in the developed world, but also in Asia, remains negligible. Horrifying though the carnage of 9/11 was in New York, it left the international power of the US and its internal structures completely unaffected. (HOBSBAWN, 2008) Terrorism has advanced due to globalisation and has the potential to cause global harm but it can never challenge the existing world order. Globalisation has resulted in both criminals and terrorists developing transnational networks, dispersing their activities, their planning, and their logistics across several continents, and thereby confounding the state-based legal systems that are used to combat non-State transnational aggressors in all their permutations. Threatening non-State groups are major beneficiaries of globalisation. Terrorists and criminals move people, money, and commodities through a world where the increasing flows of people, money, and commodities provide excellent cover for their activities. Both terrorists and transnational crime groups have globalised to reach their markets, to perpetuate their acts, and to evade detection. Therefore, the world has indeed become more dangerous, to a certain extent, as globalisation has created a system in which threatening non-State actors can operate with more organisation and ease; and the consequences are that damage can be caused all over the modern day world.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment Urinary tract is the most common organ to experience infection which occurs from neonates to geriatrics. It account for 8.3 million doctor visit each year and represent the second most common infection in the human body (Sumaira Zareef et al.,2009). By the advancement of age, the attack of UTI increases in men due to prostate enlargement and neurogenic bladder. Recurrent infections are common and will lead to irreversible damage of the kidneys, which result in renal hypertension and renal failure in severe cases. In community, women are more prone to develop UTI and 20% of women experience a single episode of UTI during their lifetime and 3% of women may have more than one episode of UTI per year. Pregnancy also makes them more sensitive to infection. Catheter-associated UTI is a trenchant problem and bacteriuria is found in 5% of catheterised patients (Das R N et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection refers to the presence of microbes in the urinary tract. The frequency of pathogens v aries upon hospitalization, sexual intercourse, and catheterization (Getenet B et al., 2011). About 150 million people are diagnosed for having urinary tract infection with a very high risk of morbidity and mortality (Raza S et al., 2011). Urinary tract infection is found more in women when compared with men the reason may be due to anatomical structure or because of the urothelial mucosa attachment to the muco polysaccharide lining or due to other factors (Tampekar et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection is second only to respiratory tract in acquiring microbial infections (Raza S et al., 2011). Classification of Urinary Tract Infection: Urinary tract infection may be classified as upper urinary tract infection and lower urinary tract infection. According to the infected site, if its bladder then its called cystitis, if the bacterium is in the kidney then its called pyelonephrites, if its in urine the term bacteriuria is used (Getenet B et al., 2011). Manifestation of genitourinary tract infection vary from mild symptomatic cystitis to pyelonephrites and finally to septicaemia. Pyelonephrites are the sequelae of untreated or inadequately treated lower UTI and the most common cause of hospital admission during pregnancy and which lead to preterm labour(Jamie et al .,2002). Urinary tract infections are further divided into complicated and uncomplicated infections. Uncomplicated infections are those with no prior instrumentations and complicated infections are those that have done instrumentations such as indwelling, urethral catheters and it include structural and functional abnormalities (Getnet B et al., 2011). Again UTI is classified as community acquired and hospital acquired (nosocomial). In community acquired UTI single species of bacteria is found and the organisms are Escherichia coli, P.mirabilis, Pseudomonas. Hospital acquired UTI is often due to multi drug resistant strain in this similar organism but greater preponderance of Streptococci or Klebsiella is seen (Sujit K Chaudhuri., 2001). Defnition of the precise terms in Urinary Tract Infection: Significant bacteriuria It is defined as the presence of 100000 bacteria per mL of urine. Asymptomatic bacteriuria It is defined as significant bacteriuria in infected patients with the absence of symptoms Cystitis It is defined as a syndrome of frequency, dysuria, urgency in which the infection is limited to bladder and urethra. Urethral syndrome In Urethral syndrome a conventional pathogen is present and its a syndrome of dysuria, frequency in the absence of significant bacteriuria. Acute pyelonephrites It is an acute infection in one or both the kidneys. Chronic pyelonephrites It may be due to the continuous excretion of bacteria from kidney or the recurring infection of the renal cell or due to a specific pathology of both kidneys. Relapse and reinfection Relapse is defined has the recurrence of infection by the same organism which intiated original infection. Reinfection is defined as the recurrence of infection by a new organism (Roger walker et al., 2003). Several studies have demonstrated geographical variability of Pathogens occurrence among UTI inpatient and outpatient is limited by the predominance of gram negative organisms. The most frequent pathogen isolated is Escherichia coli which accounts for about 50% to 90% of all uncomplicated infections (Tampekar et al., 2006). In complicated urinary tract infection and hospitalized patients, organisms such as Enterococcus faecalis and highly resistant gram negative rods including Pseudomonas are most common (Getenet B et al., 2011). Aetiology and microbiology: The most common causative organism of uncomplicated UTI is Escherichia coli accounting more than 85% cases, followed by staphylococcus saprophyticus (coagulase-negative staphylococcus) accounting to nearly 15%. The pathogens in complicated UTI or nosocomical infections are Escherichia coli accounting 50%, Proteus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococci and Enterococci (Barbara et al., 2008). A very rare cause of urinary tract infection includes anaerobic bacteria and fungi and sometimes viruses which are detected by culture and nucleic acid amplification method. Abnormalities of the urinary tract such congenital anomalies of ureter, renal stones, enlargement of prostrate in men are other causes for urinary tract infection (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pathophysiology of UTI: (Barbara et al., 2008) The urinary tract includes two pairs of kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. Urinary tract infection are defined as infections at any level of the urinary tract which include, Upper urinary tract infection (Pyelonephrites) Lower urinary tract infection ( Cystitis, Urethritis) Combination of above two The bacteria causing UTIs originate from bowel flora of the host. It can be acquired via three possible routes Ascending Haematogenous Lymphatic pathways In females the short length of the urethra and proximity to the perirectal area lead to the colonization of bacteria. The organisms enter the bladder from urethra and multiply and can ascend the ureters and ascend to the kidneys. Factors that determine the development of urinary tract infections are The size of the inoculums Virulence of the microorganisms Competency of the natural host defense mechanisms. Important virulence factors of bacteria are their ability to adhere to urinary epithelial cells by fimbriae. Others include haemolysin, a cytotoxic protein produced by bacteria which lyses a large range of cells including erythrocytes, monocytes, and polymorph nuclear leukocytes. Clinical presentation: Pain or burning when you using bathroom Fever, tiredness or shakiness An urge to use the bathroom often and often Pressure in the lower belly Urine that smells bad and looks cloudy or reddish Nausea or back pain Lower urinary tract infection Dysuria, urgency, nocturia, Increased frequency of urination Upper urinary tract infection Fever, flank pain, vomiting malaise. Clinical investigation: (Roger walker et al., 2003) Laboratory diagnosis is successful when an uncontaminated urine sample is obtained for microscopy and culture. The respective patients need to instruct to produce mid stream urine sample (MSU) and then its collected into a sterile aliquot and then transferred into the specimen pot and finally is submitted to the laboratory. Dipsticks It is a rapid testing for urinary blood, nitrites, proteins and leukocyte esterase. The colour changes are assessed. Microscopy It is the first step in the diagnosis of urinary tract infections. Urine is placed on a slide and then covered with a cover slip and is examined under lens 40x. Culture The patients urine is streaked in agar medium and is incubated for 24 hours at 370C and identify the single bacterial species which as initiated the particular infection. Treatment of UTI: Non specific treatment Urinary tract infected patients are advised to drink a lot of fluids, this practice is on the basis that the bacteria is removed by frequent bladder emptying. Urinary analgesics such sodium citrate which will alkanize urine is used with antibiotics as an adjunct therapy (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pharmacological treatment of UTI Antibiotics are commonly used in Urinary tract infections. The modes of action of antibiotics may be, Inhibition of Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibition of Cytoplasmic Membrane Function Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibition of Protein Synthesis Control of Microbial Enzymes Substrate Competition with an Essential Metabolite (Barar F. S. K., 2007) UTI are mainly treated with broad spectrum Cephalosporins, Fluroquinolones, and Aminoglycosides. Cephalosporins are cell wall inhibitors which are commonly used for treating urinary tract infections caused by Gram negative organisms. It include Cefotaxime, Cephradine, Ceftazidime etc. Flouroquinolones act by inhibiting the activity of DNA gyrase and topo isomerase which are the enzymes needed for bacterial DNA replication and it includes Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Enoxacin. Aminoglycoside act by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis it include Gentamycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin etc (Farhat Ullah et al., 2009). Oral therapy in urinary tract infection is Sulphonamides example (TMP-SMX) PenicillinS which include Ampicillin, Amoxicillin- clavulanic acid. Cephalosporins example Cephalexin, Cephadrine. Tetracyclines example Doxycycline, Minocycline. Fluroquinolones example Levofloxacin, Nitrofurantine. Parentral therapy is done with Carbapenems example Imipenem-Cilastatin. Aminglycosides example Amikacin, Gentamycin (Barbara et al., 2008). 2.9 Treatments of infections of urinary tract: (S.D Seth et al., 1999) Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Infections Single-dose Trimethoprim -Sulphamethoxazole (400mg+2g) are used to treat acute uncomplicated episode of cystitis. Acute urethritis can be treated with Doxycycline 100 mg twice a day for 7 days. Single dose therapy must be restricted in patients where symptoms are present for less than 10 days. In more complicated cases seven days therapy with antibiotics should be given and alternatively broader spectrum antibiotics are used. Treatment of upper Urinary Tract Infections 10-14 day course of Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole, Trimethoprim in a single dose, Cephalosporins, or Aminoglycoside gives adequate therapy. If recurrence occurs then the patient should be investigated for calculi and other urologic disease. Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections during Pregnancy Acute cystitis during pregnancy is treated with Amoxicillin, Nitrofurantoin,or Cephalosporin for 4 days. Acute pyelonephtites is managed generally with Cephalosporin or extended spectrum Penicillin. Treatment for Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections In this a drug capable of achieving high tissue concentration is needed.7-14 days high treatment is given. Treatment of Asymptomatic Infections Asymptomatic bacteriuria is confirmed by a minimum of two positive cultures. An oral therapy for 1 week with the most sensitive agent is given primarly. Treatment for Catheter Associated Urinary Tract Infection Asymptomatic bacteriuria in catheterized patients is not treated if they are not at a high risk of sepsis. Treatment for Prostatitis The pathogen found in this is mainly Gram Negative Bacilli. Trimethoprim- Sulphamethoxazole, Erythromycin, Ciprofloxacin can penetrate prosthetic tissue and are mostly effective. If Cocci are found cloxacillin may be given. Chemoprophylaxis of Urinary Tract Infections It is indicated to patients with a very frequent symptomatic infection. A single dose Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole (80mg TMP+400 mg SMZ) or Nitrofurantoin (50 mg) is found to be effective. Drug resistance: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Barar F.S.K 2010). Bacteria are said to be resistant to an antibiotic if the maximal level of that antibiotic which can be tolerated by the host does not alter the bacterial growth. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics may be either Natural or Acquired. Natural resistance Natural resistance is genetically determined and it depends upon the absence of a metabolic process which is affected by the respective bacteria. Acquired resistance Acquired resistance is the resistance which is seen in a previously sensitive bacterial pathogen and it involves a very stable genetic change which is heritable from one generation to another generation. The common mechanism is by mutation, adaptation, or by the development of multiple drug resistance which is as a result of transfer of genetic material from bacteria to bacteria by transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Microbial species which are normally responsive to a particular drug may develop more virulent, resistant strains due to, Genetic alterations Spontaneous mutations of DNA DNA transfer of drug resistance B) Altered expression of proteins in organism Modification of target site Decreased accumulation Enzymtic Inactivation A) Genetic alterations Acquired antibiotic is due to the temporary or permanent alteration of organisms genetic information. Spontaneous mutation of DNA Chromosomal alteration occurs by insertion or substitution of one or more nucleotides within the genome. The mutation may be lethal to the cells. If the cells survive it will replicate and transmit its mutated properties to other cells. DNA transfer of drug resistance It occurs due to DNA transfer from one bacterium to other. Resistance gene are plasmid mediated and can be incorporated into host bacterial DNA. B) Altered expression of proteins in organism It occurs by variety of mechanisms, such as a lack of or alteration in target site, increased efflux of the drug or by the expression of antibiotic inactivating enzymes. Modification of target sites The change in the antibiotic target site through mutation can lead to resistance. Example, S pneumonia resistance to beta lactums involves alteration in one or more of major bacterial penicillin binding protein. Decreased accumulation If the drug is unable to attain access to the site of its action to kill the organisms resistance confers. Enzymic inactivation The ability to destroy antibiotic agent by the pathogen can confer resistance. Antibiotic inactivating enzymes include a) Beta lactamases (Hydrolytically inactivate beta lactum ring of penicillin) b) Acetyl transferases (Transfer an acetyl group to antibiotics) c) Esterases (Hydrolyze the lactone ring of macrolides) Antibiotic tolerance: The term antibiotic tolerance is used when the antibiotic merely inhibits its multiplication and growth but no longer kills the microbial pathogen. Tolerant microbial pathogen starts to grow after antibiotics are stopped. Cross resistance: It is defined as a phenomenon in which bacteria resistant to one drug is resistant to another drug to which the bacteria is not exposed before. Examples are Neomycin and Kanamycin. Prevention of drug resistance: (K.D Tripathy 2006) Indiscriminate and prolonged use of antibiotics should be stopped it will minimise resistant strains so there will be less chance to preferentially propagate Rapidly acting and narrow spectrum antibiotics should be preferred. Broad spectrum is used when a proper one cannot be determined When prolonged therapy is needed use combination of Anti microbial agents Treatment should be intensively done for the infections by organism which develops resistance Example, Staphylococcus aureus. Evaluation of urinary tract pathogen and principles of antibiotic dosing: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Sharma H L et al 2011) The traditional way for the evaluating urinary tract pathogens is urine culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing. The major drawback of current microbiological analysis is time lapse of more than a day (Vesna Ivancic et al., 2008). The five important characteristic which influence frequency of dosing of all antibiotics are, Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibit bacterial growth. To have effective therapy the clinically obtainable antimicrobial concentration should be greater than MIC. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic agent that results in 99.9% decline in colony count after incubation. Concentration dependent killing effect [CDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when higher blood concentration is reached periodically. These bactericidal antibiotics are said to be concentration -dependent killing (CDK). In drugs whose killing action is CDK the extent and rate of killing increases with increase in drug concentration. Examples Amino glycosides, Fluroquinolones. Time dependent killing effect [TDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when the blood concentrations are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration for the maximum long duration possible. These bactericidal antibiotics exhibit time -dependent killing (TDK). In drugs whose killing action is (TDK) the activity of antibiotics continue as long as serum concentration are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration. Examples Vancomycin, Beta Lactums. Post -antibiotic effect [PAE] A suppression of bacterial growth which is persistent after a brief exposure to antibiotics agents is said to be post-antibiotic effect. In post antibiotic effect the suppression or inhibition of bacterial growth is found even when the bacterial agent is no longer present or its concentration is very less than MIC. Examples of drugs which show significant PAE are Tetracycline, Amino glycosides. The aetiology of UTI and the antibiotic susceptibility of uropathogens have been changing over the past decade. The extensive uses of antibiotics have invariably resulted in the development of resistance which has become major problem in recent years. Antibiotic treatment which are of shorter duration than required, and the treatment administered without considering antibiotic and organism sensitivity as resulted in more resistance in bacterial strains (Mohammed Akram et al., 2007), (Eshwarappa M et al., 2011). To find out the most effective empirical treatment, investigating the epidemiology of UTI is a fundamental approach to guide the expected interventions (Getnet B et al., 2011). Since the distribution of microbial pathogens and their susceptibility is variable regionally and it is necessary to have a knowledge of uropathogens and sensitivity in a particular setting (Muhammed Naeem et al., 2010). The selection of antimicrobial agents require the following knowledge, The organisms identity The organisms susceptibility to particular agent The site of the infection Patient factors The safety of the agent The cost of therapy However, in critically ill patients need immediate treatment i.e. the therapy is initiated soon after specimens for laboratory analysis have been obtained before the culture result and selection of drug is influenced by the site of infection and patients history or by the association of particular organism Prevention and prophylaxis: (Roger Walker et al). Cranberry juice: It has been thought beneficial for the prevention of urinary tract infections. The benefit of drinking cranberry juice instead of antibiotics has reduced resistance of bacteria. Antibiotic prophylaxis: It is indicated to patients who are having reinfections. If the reinfection is after sexual intercourse then after intercourse a single dose of antibiotics is taken. In other cases low dose is beneficial. Patient counselling of UTI: Drinking plenty of clear liquids will keep urine diluted. Good personal hygiene following urination and bowel movements. Cleaning self front to back from vagina to anus. Urinate frequently to wash out bacteria that may be present, avoid holding urine for prolonged periods of time. Urinate after intercourse to wash out bacteria that may have been introduced into the urethra. Avoid wearing tight jeans, wet bathing suites. Present scenario of UTI: New studies reveal that the risk of urinary tract infection is high among boys who has not circumcised and had a visible urethral meatus. Another line of UTI research has indicated that women who are non-secretors of certain blood group antigens may be more prone to recurrent urinary tract infections because the cells lining the vagina and urethra may allow bacteria to attach more easily. Scientists have worked out an effective new approach to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) by dumping antibiotics. It involves so-called FimH antagonists, which are non antibiotic compounds and would not contribute to the growing problem of pathogens resistant to antibiotics. Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Background 1.1 Settlement of Refugees in Australia Australia has been settling refugees for more than a century. As per official records, settlement history begins in 1839, marking the arrival of Lutherans. Nevertheless, Australia’s modern approach to refugee settlement began with a new national refugee policy in 1977. It has, now, become a designated resettlement country for refugees and it receives a designated number of refugees on annual basis as on the agreement with UNHCR. According to the best estimates available, 2009-10 was the year in which Australia, since becoming an independent nation, passed the 750,000 mark in its intake of refugees and humanitarian entrants. In recent years, the incidents of persecution, conflict, generalized violence and human rights violation have significantly increased in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the border between Sudan and South Sudan. Surprisingly Australia has reduced its Refugee and Humanitarian Program to 13, 750 places while there is a considerable gap between resettlement needs and available places worldwide. At this point, it is important to acknowledge current refugee settlement issues in Australia. In general, settlement issues fall into four main categories as follows: In addition to these main categories, if we go further deeper into the context, it is obvious to see another horizon of challenges fall into following areas: Family and Youth Legal and Financial Community Relations Securing a meaningful employment is a truly challenging task among refugees mainly because of their lack of knowledge about Australian work place culture, no prior work experience in Australia, inadequate services to support employment transitions, discrimination, racism, lack of English proficiency, inability to get access to job market, and problems in recognizing overseas skills, experience and qualification. Finding an affordable house becomes a serious issue due to the competition in private rental market. Renting and retaining the house have equal consideration as finding the house. Discrimination and racism appear again as opposing factors. Moreover, financial hardship of refuges, size of families, their lack of Australian rental history, and unawareness about tenancy rights and responsibilities can be said as reasons for housing difficulties during their settlement. Educational barriers are different system of education, different languages, inadequate induction and support, high illiteracy among refugee communities, disruption of schooling for young people and enrollment based on age rather than knowledge. Inconsistency in policies and practices results in ignoring needs of young people with disrupted education. Health issues are normally caused by family separation, their prior experience and trauma, lack of social networks and consequent isolation. All of the above issues (Employment, Housing and Education) negatively affect the health and mental wellbeing of these communities. We can notice a great demand for interpreters in health sector since they are often required in counseling and consultation. Integrational conflicts and cultural shocks attempt to damage family relations and people’s values. For an example, younger ones adapt more readily and it leads to misunderstanding and confusion within families. Parenting becomes more challenging. Cultural clashes affect spousal relationships in a negative way and ends up in separation and divorces. Domestic violence and family breakdowns seem to be common in refugee communities. On the other hand, there are serious concerns about unaccompanied minors and single mothers with many children. When it comes to youth, due to their prior refugee experience, limited education or work experience, cultural dislocation and loss of established social networks lead them to frustration. Resulting frustration has its own dangerous consequences such as involving in illegal activities. Most of the refugees who come from war torn countries see the police as an oppressive authority. This viewpoint often creates misunderstanding between police and refugee communities. Racism does its part to damage this relationship worse than we assume. Refugees are in need for legal advices regarding their visa process, financial arrangements and documentations. Cultural incompetency of legal advisers and refugee’s lack of knowledge of legal systems can be highlighted under this area. Community relations between refugee communities and host communities are influenced by myth about refugees, cultural misunderstanding, discrimination and racism. These factors prevent both communities to create wider interactions for better understanding between them. Without a positive cooperation from local community, it is difficult to succeed in settlement. All these main categories and areas of settlement issues repeatedly highlight a gap between refugee communities and local community. And a detachment between refugees and local systems is also visible. These gap and detachment practically become great barriers for a smooth integration and successful settlement of refugees in Australia. 1.3 Problem Analysis Based on our background research on the settlement of refugees in Australia, we developed our initial problem tree. It was used as a draft during expert consultations. Its insightfulness helped us finding missing pieces if information and guided us to further research. Obviously the gap between refugee communities and local community together with local systems directly or either indirectly poses challenges to almost every problem we identified. Therefore, we identified community isolation as our focal problem. Consultation with refugee experts who have refugee backgrounds as well as remarkable experience from working with refugees settling in Victoria, particularly in South East of Melbourne, gave us clear picture of current settlement issues. Some of the case studies based on City of Greater Dandenong showed us a multiple dimensions of already identified problems. Our finalized problem tree, after sorting out the problems, is given below. Public misunderstanding was identified a crucial factor to discrimination. Some of the politicians and media play an important role in creating a negative image for refugees. For an example, if a refugee is accused to be involved in a crime scene, they flash the news by highlighting the background of this particular refugee community and paint a red color on the rest of the community without considering the consequences. In fact, these sort of careless actions widen the gap between local community and refugee communities. It is evident to see lack of confidence among refugees mainly due to cultural alienation, past refugee experience, language incompetency and lack of knowledge of local context and local systems. Considering the cultural alienation, it is happened to be the outcome of difference between the unique characteristics of different cultures. Australians can be identified with individualism, lack of social cohesion and materialism whereas most of the refugee communities can be characterized as collectivist societies. Mutual understanding is necessary to promote better understanding of these differences and that requires considerably a long time. Among the effects of community isolation, identity crisis is something which has profound effect even on other effects either directly or indirectly. But, normally, it doesn’t get enough attention from settlement programs. Acculturation means that members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of a dominant group. It can be reciprocal but in case of refugees it is only one way. It causes loss of separate ethnic identification. People feel a sense of powerlessness as a result. Psychosocial repercussions heavily damage human personality. As a result, refugees look at perceived threats, it can be either real or even imagined, in their lives and recognize it may require resources we don’t have. It includes threats to their social status, social esteem, acceptance within the society and threat to their self-worth. In long time, all these effects create social discord which is not good for both local community and refugee communities. 1.4 Objective Analysis At the end of the objective analysis, we came up with positive results, but not for each of the identified problem statements. We left a question mark for racism as it can’t be directly addressed. Nobody is going to accept that they are racist. Therefore, we decided to better leave it alone in the objective tree and reduce its impact indirectly from promoting public understanding. Objective tree was adjusted with some rearrangements with optimistic conditions. Alternative analysis pointed out the ongoing programs and projects by AMES, state government and other service providers in the area of employment, housing, language, education and future promises to improve current refugee and humanitarian programs. At this point, it is important to acknowledge Community Guides Program, Luv-A-Duck project and Ucan3 Youth Program of AMES as well as its support to social enterprises such as Sorghum Sisters, Cultural Cooks and Global Cafà ©, and support for community initiatives. We noticed lack of attention on the refugees’ rights and their cultural validity. It was finally decided to promote community engagement by increasing the level of confidence among refugees and creating social embrace with public understanding. Community Engagement will create cultural validity for refugee communities by providing them greater opportunities for social networking. Mutual understanding between local community and refugee communities would have positive impact in long-term and that would consequently bring social harmony in the City of Greater Dandenong.